>> WHAT ARE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BROCHURE VS PROPESCHES

ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE

Writings on
Empire and Slavery

WRITINGS ON EMPIRE AND SLAVERY

>>

W7Htin0s on
Empire and Slavery

ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE

Edited and Tramhted by
Jennifer Pitts

THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY PRESS

Baltimore &’ London

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© 2tH)i Jennifer Pitts
AJl rights rcscrvTti. Published 2001

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A catalog record for ihii!; book ii av’iiljhle from the Britt5h Librarv.

ISBN O-Eoi 8-6503- J

CONTENTS

Acknowiedjprmin vii
Introduction ix

SOME IDEAS ABOUT WHAT TRti VENTS THE ERENtJH tROM
HAVlNCi GOOD COLONIES (1S33) I

FIRST LHTIER ON ALGERIA (2^ JUNE IS57) 5

SECX>ND LETTER ON ALt! ERlA (22 AUGUST I S 37) I4

KOTES ON THE KOllAN (\L\RC:H ISjS) 2?

NOTES ON THE VOYAt^ETO .ALtiERlAiN I8+I ^6

ESSAV ON ALtiERLA (OCTOBER [84!) 59

INTERVENTION IN THE DEBATE OVER THE ArPROPRlATlON
Of SrECLA.L EUNDlNti (1S46) II7

FIRST REPORT ON ALGERIA (IS47) 129

SECOND REPORTON ALCiERlA (1S47) I74

THE EMANCIPATION OE SLAVEYS (IS45) 1^9

Notes 2.1L7

Seka Ribliqgmphy 26^
Index ^7l

ACKN OWLE DGMENTS

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kuusmu rnk.ftii t s tsul s m un s s rskfun sk t t s ninss
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uji i s kr usl u sG inr su \n\s\i ks s t us rk rt s nkil u s ns n
niisu ^r II r ss rknuikt uta^ s ns su dai^n m rsiss sx Aik su
tmu s m ku srsG ssstun ut s uss. k n G sm slujfoLiujhiiu irrs inn
1 Tn&r& 1 s aiku si* sns us tl ss um k .4ui£ us tiTi^k ss nik ks ss tktls ks
finsu ss k n SF sn staus SBSissssrtst rautiul uts ss m ii

aimm SGUsnk tknilsai sr sur ul 1^ unia ua kscidmrn^sm
traufKsns m u mn aij^issd ns u sus &t r n utfuis uutirsussssti ^ u
mtm u Is r msrl m uls ss sms Isssrs ts skins su rt ursGsls iiitm

mer, Patrice Higgonet, Man Pitts, and Toni Wagner for lieJp witli ccrEaiEi
tennis and pas.’jages.

T!ic Miiida de Gtinzbtirg Center for European Stutiies tit Har^’ard Uni-
versity brought togetlitr a superb coinl1llJi^it^’ of schoJars in my tinier chert and
provided me w’tih an uiiparalkkd research en%ir(>nr[^eiiE. I iiti grateful to tlie
CiiarioEte Newcombe roiindntion (at a diAsertation complolrioii grant that
freed mc iVom ce:n:liing ditties for a year and ei^abied me to de^'ote some time
to this Lran.shtion. I ani grateful as weJl to sny ediK>rs at die Johtm Hopkisis
Univ'ersit\' Preis^ Douglas Arinato, Henr\'Tom, and especially Peter Droyer,
whose keen eye and eomnur^d ol" French language and histor>' Eiave improved
evety page of this book.

Any remaining errors in die translation or the introduetion are jnine
a.lone.

INTRODUCTION

LIFE

Alexis jc TfJcqQL'vllIt was born in Paris iti i&os to a noble lUniilv badly scafred
by the French Rc^'olution. ^ His itiother^s grandiithcr, Lajtioignoii do M^ilos-
herbcs, had de (ended LouLs XVI Ix-forc the Convention and wiis guillotined in
1 794, His parents^ Her\'e de Tocque^ ille and Louise de Rosanbo^ iniprisoned
in their early nventies, had tseaped execution hut emerged weak and anxious.
Alexis, dieir diird son, was educated at !vome by the abbe Lesueur, a nonjuriag
priest who had been Hen'C^s tutor and had returned to the family after his
revfolutionarv' exile. At sixteen, Toeque^ille entered tlie college de Mecz, where
he excelled , despite his father's fears that tlie abbd'S instruction liad been
exce.isively lax. After studying h\v in Pari.*, TiKquevilli:; was appointed to a
prestigious past as a magistrate in Versailles, apparenth' as a lavor to his farher.
His colleague there. Gustave Auguste de EcaiimoEU de La BoiiEiiniere ( 1802.-
66) , a former schoolmate who was alio of an aristocratic famiSy, would be-
come his dose friend and traveling companion Their political careers, like so
many, were disrupted by the July Revolution of 1S30., when the right-wing
Bourbon monarchy cf C[iark-s X was overthrown and replaced by the consti-
tutional "bourgeois" monarchy of Louis-Philippe. TocquevtUe reluctandy
awore allegiance to the new regime^ although his father, a legitimist., or sup-
porter of the deposed Bt>urboiis, refused co rake the oatii.-Toctfuevilte himself
would have to figlit imputations that lie was a legitimist for much of his
political career,

Tocquesille and Beaumont resolved to leave tlie comitr)' for a year to

X Ititradactim

avoki the perjionil costiproBTiises char the\' ttk itivolvemctit in the new rogimc

would demand. Tliey received penni.ssioii to travel to Ainerica as oflicial rep
rcstntativL's of the French state (chougli cfiey piiid their owii way), in order
to study ehc progressive penitentiary' sysceiti of eIic United States. Altiiough
their Systems pmitenti^irey publ isficd i ti i S 3 3 . received a prize from the InstituE
de France, lar more aii^bitioLW gotils fiad alwavs itispired rheir journey. As
Tocqueville wrote to a Irictid \i\ i Sgo., *^For a long time now, I have had a ver\'
strong dtsire to visiE Noith Ajnerica. I will go there and see whtit a great
republic is."-^ Tiiey planned to write a book together describing Europe's dem-
ocratdt fiirure as it appeared in America, and thus "separate ourselves from the
crowd" and open die way to political careens. In tlie e\'ent, their projects
diverged. Tocque^ille wrote the political work, and Beaumont ^tot^Mm'ie,
about a romiuice between a young Frencfmian and a jnixed-race American
woman., and a social commentary that reflected hi.s discouragement and pessi
miSEn about die state ol" race relatiojis in ^^inerica.''

The first volume oi^Detnomuy inAtmria^ was published in 1S55, winning
Tocquevillc immediate celebrit)' and critical praise. Although there are no
records of the number of books in each printing, we know tliat sales far
outpaced the publisher's eKpeccations., so that by 1S40 (when the second
volume was pubfislied) Dernocriuy inAmenm had gone into its eight!) priEit-
ing.^ Also in iS^^^ Tagainst the wishes of his familv. After having failed to win election to the
Chajnber of Deputies in [S37,Toct5LLc\ ilk' entered the Chamber in MarcEi 1859
as the representative for Valognes, the Norman district that included tEie fani
th' seat LUid town of ToccjiiL^'ille. He had fougiit to niL^intain his independence
during the cattipaign, and to Sght oft' insinuations that he was a legitiniisi. Ai
he would insist to his constituency' again in June iS4i^ ^^I atM a libefai and
nothing more. I was one before 1S50; I am still one."*

Throughout his parlia[nentar\^ career ( i S39-5 1 ) , atid despite his constit-
uents^ apparent enthusiasm, TocqucAille was plag;ued by self-doubt. He con-
sidered himself a mediocre public speaker, and he believed that his resolute
indepCEidciice of any faction was politicallv crippling. After publishing ctie
second volume o( Dfmoi:ntty in America in !i!40, TxtjueviHu devoted particu-
lar energv' to France's foreign and colonial policv', for !ie belie^'ed that it was on
this neglected terrain that France's stabtlitv' and international reputation mig[it
be built. Despite his refusal to join a side in the divisions leading to the

iHtntdtii^fi \i

revolution of 1848, which agiin led co suspicions on die left tlvat he was a
reactionary'j Tocqueville was elected to tlie Natiojial Assembly, die body cfiat
replaced die Chamber of Deputici, vv!iich first met in May 1348. He reports
these events in an engaging and highly personal accoiinE in his RfmlietUons
{ 1S5 1 ). Tocqutvilli.' .wr^'ect aii foreign minister in ihe short-li\-ed Batrot niinis-
tt^' (from Jiinc m October 1849)^ during which time lie was preoccupied
mosdv with the republicaii rebellion in Rome against Pope Pins IX.

The I S5 1 coup of Ijju is -Napoleon Bonaparte, who declared himself Em-
peror Napoleon III in December 1S53, brought Toctjoeville's politicAl life to
an end, for although die new prince-presidenc begged Tocquc\'i]Ee to join his
government^ he adiiniantly refused. He devoted the energies of hi^ List decade
to writing his histof)’ of centralization in France, The Old Regime and the
Rtn^tilution {i&^6}^ for which he planned^ but never completed, two other
volumes : one to cover the revolution itself and die other to conside r Napoleon
Bonaparte and tlie first Empire/’ Tocqueviile’s health, always somewhat frag-
ile, deteriorated nocablv beginning in 1S50, though iie maintained a rigorous
schedule of writing and archival research. He was in the midst of researching
the second volume of die Old Regime when in 1851! his worsening tuberculosis
forced him to move soutl^ for die winter; he died in April i&S9 at Canneit.

TOCQUEVILLE AND THE FRENCH IMPERIAL PROJECT

^\Tien Tocqueville called for a new political science for a new world in his
introduction to the first volume oiDsmocfocyinAmericft (1835), declaring, “II
fauc u ne science politique EH:>uve lie a un monde tout nouveau,” he liad i n niind
the profound politictil transformations in “the Christian nations of our dav”":
developments that appeared to be leading inexorably toward democracy’ and
social cqualitv’L His statement jiiight just as well have applied to die equally
iietolutionar,’ developments in Europe’s relations vAlh the non-Eunopean
world. France^ ha\ing relitiqulslicd most of her New World possessions to
Britain in die preceding century’, had just conquered the cir\’ of Algieis in 1830
and, over the next two decades, was to corLsolidate a North African empire
tliat svouid last, violendv and precariously, until 1962. Britain, whicli had lost
much of its own empire in the Western Hemisphere, was expanding its territo-
ries and the deptli of state invoh’ement in die east, especiallv in India.

Tocque\’i]Ec himself felt diese deveiopmencs \\’inniittees, and especiiUly finance commit-
tees,, daily put observations and ■\iews that they believe tliev’ should submit to
the government in writing, sending a draft that makes their tliinking clear.

They say the ciiarter grants the king die free disposition of land and sea
forces. \Anvo is denvieig that? Have we claimed to dispute the Idng^s use of this
prerogative, or to hamper anv exercise of it whatsoever* Were we preventing
tlie government from authorizing die expedition in asserting that it seemed to
us, as it still seems^ icnpoliticanddangerous? The go\trEinient remained abso-
lutely fir ee to undertake it. We wanted only one thing: to discharge our respon-
sibilities and yours, gentlemen, iind to perform our duty.

The nnajorit>’ of the committee persist in believing that it would havt
lulled in its clearest and most pressing obligatiot^s if it had acted otherwise
than it did. We continue to think we gave powerful reasons to enlighten the
government in time on die political and linancial resulrsoftlie expedition that
was to take place, and tliat it was easier for them to refuse to listen than it was
to respond to us in a convincing manner.*^

SECOND REPORT ON ALGERIA (1847)

REPORT BY M- DE TOCQUEVILLE ON THE BILL

REQUESTING A CREDIT OE THREE MILLION FRANCS

FOR ALGERIAN ACrRICULTURAL CAMPS

Ay^t-’ia muit be colonized.’^ Gendeincn, wc do hoc andcrtake todcnioiwcracc to
tlie Chcimlwr that rhe [waceabk estublL'ihmenc of a European population on
the soil of Africa wouJd be die most elective means of placing oufseives there
and gUiiraiUecing our domination.- This truth has been made clear inanv
times, ajid we have nothing to say about it here^ except that your comEflittee
has admitted icas decnons crated.

Only two members^ widiout denyiugthe udlitv^of iSie result to be attained,
have contested the hunlalut^' aEid wisdom of attempting such an enterpri.se, -^

The country' to be ct^lonizcd, they said, is not ejtipty or populated only by
hunters, like certain parts oi clie New World; it is already occupied, possessed,
and cultivated by a popuJation tliat is agricultural atid often sedetitarv'. To
introduce a new population into such a counm' is to lengthen the war and to
pave [he way for the inevitable destruction of tlie indigenous races.

They add that in addition the cJiniate repulses us, Tliat nuinetous experi-
ences have proven that die Europeari never acclimatizes., and that hi^ children
canE50t live there.

These objections, gendemen, however grave they might seem in them-
selves^ and whate^■■er force thev nught derive from the talent of tliose who
present them, have not held up the committee.

F&aors tbuT faciUiate rbf introdtiction of a Europe&f} populsiion. The country

S££ufidRspffTtiffiA(ff£iia 1-75

is CMZCupied, it l^ true, but it is not tull, nor even actually owned. Tlie indige-
nous popuJaEion there is very' sparse and [hinlv scattered. Thus the conquering
population ciin Lm: i n trtxiuced onto the land without disturbing the cosiq uered
population.

Study the hisior)'^ of the country', consider the practices and the laws that
govern it^ and you will see that greater and more remarkaWe iiieaiis for leading
sudi ixn enterprise peacefullv and to good result art nowEiere to be tbuiid. We
sliall nicrelv recall chein vcn' suriunarily 10 the Chamber.

It has been remarked that wherever societi,' has long been unstable and
power C\Tantiical. the pro^wrties owned by tlie state are numerous and va-st.
This Ls tlie cise in Algeria, Tlic public domain is of iminen.*ie proportions, and
the latids owned by the state are die best in the country'. We can distribute
tliese lands to European farmers without injuring anvone^s rights.

We can do tlie same widi part of the tribes' lands.

This is neither the time i5or the place to expUiin and discuss before the
Chajnberthe rules on whieli iJk- right of property' rests in Africa. These ques-
tions are obscure in themselves, and they were further olxscured and muddled
by the attempt to iEtip-cMe a single, common solution, wEiich the diversity ol'
&cts resisted. We shall limit ourselves to establishing as general and incontest-
able truths that^ in manv places,, indh'idual a[id pacriirionial property' does not
exist; diat in many odier.s^ tiie tribes^ comniunaJ propcrt\' does not rest on ajiy
tide, and that it \& held by reason of the government's tolerance radier thim of
ajiy law.

These, gendemen, are the rare and particular circumstances diat assuredly
make our work easier tlian that of n^ost conquerors.

First, the Chamber 'i\'ill readily understand that it h easier to Introduce a
new population to a territorv' that is o\\^ned onh' comEimnally than onto land
where even- iirch of .soil is prtitceted by a right and by a particular interest. You
will also understand that in a country' where pro|^>erty is rare enougli tfiat most
individuals and even some of the tribes liave none — acountn' in which none-
theless enough property exists for all to sense its charjns and to desire it
ardendy— tliat in such a country' there will alino,st always be people offering
transactions of their own accord. It is easy to bring a tribe with a terrltor^^ too
large for it, but that it d(x-s not own, to give up pare of it on condition that it
gets secure title to the rest. The tide we give is the price of the lanei we keep.^

It is thus not correct to sav t!i at the introduction of Eu ropean f arme rs onto
African soil is an impracticable measure. Undoubtedly^ it presents difliculties
(www.google.com)

>> PRONOUNS

1.Personal Pronouns

When a pronoun and a noun are combined (which will happen with the plural first- and second-person pronouns), choose the case of the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were not there.

* We students are demanding that the administration give us two hours for lunch.
* The administration has managed to put us students in a bad situation.

When a pronoun and a noun are combined (which will happen with the plural first- and second-person pronouns), choose the case of the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were not there.

* We students are demanding that the administration give us two hours for lunch.
* The administration has managed to put us students in a bad situation.

With the second person, we don't really have a problem because the subject form is the same as the object form, "you":

* "You students are demanding too much."
* "We expect you students to behave like adults."
Among the possessive pronoun forms, there is also what is called the nominative possessive: mine, yours, ours, theirs.

* Look at those cars. Theirs is really ugly; ours is beautiful.
* This new car is mine.
* Mine is newer than yours.
2. Demonstrative Pronouns

The family of demonstratives (this/that/these/those/such) can behave either as pronouns or as determiners.

As pronouns, they identify or point to nouns.

* That is incredible! (referring to something you just saw)
* I will never forget this. (referring to a recent experience)
* Such is my belief. (referring to an explanation just made)
The family of demonstratives (this/that/these/those/such) can behave either as pronouns or as determiners.

As pronouns, they identify or point to nouns.

* That is incredible! (referring to something you just saw)
* I will never forget this. (referring to a recent experience)
* Such is my belief. (referring to an explanation just made)

As determiners, the demonstratives adjectivally modify a noun that follows. A sense of relative distance (in time and space) can be conveyed through the choice of these pronouns/determiners:

* These [pancakes sitting here now on my plate] are delicious.
* Those [pancakes that I had yesterday morning] were even better.
* This [book in my hand] is well written;
* that [book that I'm pointing to, over there, on the table] is trash.

A sense of emotional distance or even disdain can be conveyed with the demonstrative pronouns:

* You’re going to wear these?
* This is the best you can do?

Pronouns used in this way would receive special stress in a spoken sentence.

When used as subjects, the demonstratives, in either singular or plural form, can be used to refer to objects as well as persons.

* This is my father.
* That is my book.

In other roles, however, the reference of demonstratives is non-personal. In other words, when referring to students, say, we could write “Those were loitering near the entrance during the fire drill” (as long as it is perfectly clear in context what “those” refers to). But we would not write “The principal suspended those for two days”; instead, we would have to use “those” as a determiner and write “The principal suspended those students for two days.”
Relative Pronouns

The relative pronouns (who/whoever/which/that) relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns (The student who studies hardest usually does the best.). The word who connects or relates the subject, student, to the verb within the dependent clause (studies). Choosing correctly between which and that and between who and whom leads to what are probably the most Frequently Asked Questions about English grammar. For help with which/that, refer to the Notorious Confusables article on those words (including the hyperlink to Michael Quinion’s article on this usage and the links to relevant quizzes). Generally, we use “which” to introduce clauses that are parenthetical in nature (i.e., that can be removed from the sentence without changing the essential meaning of the sentence). For that reason, a “which clause” is often set off with a comma or a pair of commas. “That clauses,” on the other hand, are usually deemed indispensable for the meaning of a sentence and are not set off with commas. The pronoun which refers to things; who (and its forms) refers to people; that usually refers to things, but it can also refer to people in a general kind of way. For help with who/whom refer to the section on Consistency. We also recommend that you take the quizzes on the use of who and whom at the end of that section.

The expanded form of the relative pronouns — whoever, whomever, whatever — are known as indefinite relative pronouns. A couple of sample sentences should suffice to demonstrate why they are called “indefinite”:

* The coach will select whomever he pleases.
* He seemed to say whatever came to mind.
* Whoever crosses this line first will win the race.

What is often an indefinite relative pronoun:

* She will tell you what you need to know.
3. Indefinite Pronouns

There are other indefinite pronouns, words that double as Determiners:

enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, several, more, most, all, both, every, each, any, either, neither, none, some

* Few will be chosen; fewer will finish.
* Little is expected.

See the section on Pronoun Consistency for help in determining the number (singular/plural) characteristics of these pronouns.
4. Intensive Pronouns

The intensive pronouns (such as myself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves) consist of a personal pronoun plus self or selves and emphasize a noun. (I myself don’t know the answer.) It is possible (but rather unusual) for an intensive pronoun to precede the noun it refers to. (Myself, I don’t believe a word he says.)

5. Reflexive Pronouns

The reflexive pronouns (which have the same forms as the intensive pronouns) indicate that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb. (Students who cheat on this quiz are only hurting themselves. You paid yourself a million dollars? She encouraged herself to do well.) What this means is that whenever there is a reflexive pronoun in a sentence there must be a person to whom that pronoun can “reflect.” In other words, the sentence “Please hand that book to myself” would be incorrect because there is no “I” in that sentence for the “myself” to reflect to (and we would use “me” instead of “myself”). A sentence such as “I gave that book to myself for Christmas” might be silly, but it would be correct.

When pronouns are combined, the reflexive will take either the first person

* Juanita, Carlos, and I have deceived ourselves into believing in my uncle.

or, when there is no first person, the second person:

* You and Carlos have deceived yourselves.

The indefinite pronoun (see above) one has its own reflexive form (”One must have faith in oneself.”), but the other indefinite pronouns use either himself or themselves as reflexives. (There is an entire page on the pronoun one.) It is probably better to pluralize and avoid the clumsy himself or herself construction.

* No one here can blame himself or herself.
* The people here cannot blame themselves.
6. Interrogative Pronouns

Like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns introduce noun clauses, and like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns play a subject role in the clauses they introduce:

* We know who is guilty of this crime.
* I already told the detective what I know about it.
7. Reciprocal Pronouns

The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. They are convenient forms for combining ideas. If Bob gave Alicia a book for Christmas and Alicia gave Bob a book for Christmas, we can say that they gave each other books (or that they gave books to each other).

* My mother and I give each other a hard time.

If more than two people are involved (let’s say a whole book club), we would say that they gave one another books. This rule (if it is one) should be applied circumspectly. It’s quite possible for the exchange of books within this book club, for example, to be between individuals, making “each other” just as appropriate as “one another.”

Reciprocal pronouns can also take possessive forms:

* They borrowed each other’s ideas.
* The scientists in this lab often use one another’s equipment.

(Two authorities used for this section on pronouns are: The Little, Brown Handbook by H. Ramsay Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, & Kay Limburg. 6th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1995. By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. and A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. Used with permission)

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